The Astronomical vs. Meteorological Seasons

The Astronomical versus Meteorological Seasons On the off chance that somebody solicited you when each from the seasons happens, how might you respond? Your answer may rely upon whether you think about the seasonsâ in a progressively customary, orâ a increasingly climate related way. Cosmic Seasons Change at the Equinoxes and Solstices The cosmic seasons are the ones the greater part of us know about becauseâ theirâ start dates areâ listed on our schedules. Theyre called galactic on the grounds that, similar to our schedule, theâ dates of their event depend on the situation of Earth comparable to the sun. In the Northern Hemisphere: Cosmic winter is an aftereffect of Earths north shaft being inclined its farthest away from the sun,â and the suns light pointing straightforwardly at southern scopes. It starts on December 21-22. Astronomical spring is an aftereffect of Earths north post tilt moving from its most extreme leanâ away from the sun to one equidistant from the sun,â and of the suns light pointing legitimately at the equator. It starts on March 21-22. Astronomical summer is a consequence of Earth being inclined its farthest towardsâ the sun, and the suns light pointing legitimately at north scopes. It starts on June 20-21.Astronomical fall is an aftereffect of Earths tilt moving from its most extreme leanâ towards the sun to oneâ equidistant from the sun,â and of the suns lightâ aiming legitimately at the equator. It starts on September 21-22. Meteorological Seasons Change Every 3 Months Anotherâ way to defineâ the seasons is by gathering the twelve schedule a very long time into four 3-month durations based onâ similar temperatures. In the Northern Hemisphere: Meteorological winterâ begins on December 1. It incorporates the months of December, January, and February (DJF)Meteorological springâ begins on March 1 and incorporates the months of March, April, and May (MAM).Meteorological summerâ begins on June 1. It incorporates the months of June, July, and August (JJA).Meteorological fallâ begins on September 1 and incorporates the months of September, October, and November (SON). Meteorologists didnt actualize this characterization only for its hell. Or maybe, they like to manage information from entire instead of parts of months, and adjust schedule dates all the more intimately with the temperatures felt during that period, the plan (which has been around since the right on time to mid-1900s) permits climate scientistsâ to all the more effectively contrast climate designs from one season with another something the galactic show makes lumbering because of occasional slack (the deferral in occasional temperatures settling in). Which Set of Seasons Wins Out? The galactic seasons are the more customary method of characterizing our four seasons. In spite of the fact that people may not be utilized to the meteorological way, from multiple points of view its the more normal plan for how we live our lives today. Gone are the days when we pore over the happenings of the divine sky and compose our lives as needs be. However, sorting out our lives around months and comparative stretches of temperatures is all the more consistent with our cutting edge reality.

Psychological Critical Perspective Essay Example for Free

Mental Critical Perspective Essay The use of a mental basic point of view in writing involves the use of a particular mental viewpoint to be utilized in the appraisal of the different components inside the content as they are identified with both the writer and the target group of the work. Bernard Paris (1997) states that the utilization of brain science in the investigation of a scholarly book empowers us â€Å"to comprehend the conduct of characters in writing from an earlier time, to go into their emotions, and to enhance our insight into ourselves as well as other people through a comprehension of their inward clashes and relationships† (p. xii). In accordance with this, what follows is a mental investigation of the portrayals of life and passing in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex and Susan Glaspell’s Trifles. Inside Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, the mental portrayal of death is clear in the portrayal of the sphinx. The sphinx, as a legendary animal, speaks to perplexity and demise. In its numerous variants, the sphinx might be supposed to be a portrayal of perplexity in its work of puzzles in its communication with people. Moreover, it might be supposed to be a portrayal f passing since it is delineated as an animal that brings demise [or in any event misfortune or misfortune] to the individuals who can't comprehend its conundrums. In Greek folklore and dramatization, this animal is portrayed as a brute with a ladylike sexual orientation. In spite of the fact that for the most part viewed as a despondent beast, the sphinx likewise fills in as an image of womanliness, force and disarray. In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, one may surmise that in Greek disaster, sufferings and tribulations are interwoven with the hero’s presence. To a limited degree, one may state that on account of Oedipus Rex, the sphinx characterizes the presence of Oedipus; his ‘being a hero’, in a manner of speaking. Similar remains constant for the sphinx. As it were, the legend and the scoundrel characterize each others’ being. Note for instance that inside the content itself, Oedipus’ presence is entwined with the Sphinx as in the Sphinx and legend are twin-conceived. Regarding its giant, the sphinx is portrayed from multiple points of view. These delineations are as per the following. In Oedipus Rex, she is portrayed as a singing sphinx that has allowed the oversight of dim privileged insights just as a winged lady with abnormal claws who sang dimly. Oedipus’ inadequacy to perceive both the prophet at Delphi and the genuine idea of the sphinx and its closeness to himself present us with a somewhat unique view about human instinct and the old Greeks’ confidence in destiny. The sphinx helps us to remember two things. To start with, it helps us to remember our failure to completely know ourselves as a result of human nature’s baffling character. Second, it suggests noteworthy conversation starters with respect to human opportunity and our ability for decision. At the end of the day, it toys on the thought whether opportunity and decision are insignificant hallucinations that people might want to believe that they have when truth be told, they don't. Inside this specific circumstance, life and demise are spoken to inside Oedipus Rex so that it places accentuation on the trouble of recognizing the states of life. Such a trouble is reflected in the depiction of the Sphinx just as the Sphinx’s connection with the saint of the content. Instead of this, Susan Glaspell depicts life and demise distinctively in Trifles. Wastes of time describes the catastrophe that happens inside marriage during examples wherein there is a nonappearance of homosocial measurements in a woman’s life. Inside the content, life and passing are spoken to so that they are made to be seen inside the setting of a manly look. The explanation behind this lies in the subjectivity of the depiction of both opportunity and objectivity inside the content. Consider for instance the instance of Mrs. Sound and Mrs. Dwindle who both attempted to hide the proof of Minnie’s wrongdoing. One may take note of that such a choice mirrors a specific measure of opportunity on both characters’ part. The two characters might be said to have opportunity in the negative sense that they may decide to discard explicit data that they have anyway the subjectivity of this opportunity is apparent in the event that one thinks about that the mental explanation behind precluding such a data might be followed to their embeddedness inside a manly perspective that expects them to keep up the presence of request inside their prompt environmental factors. Life and passing, inside Trifles, might be supposed to be controlled by a man centric perspective. Such a perspective, anyway consistently negates the women's activists point of view as can be found in the contentions that emerged because of Minnie’s passing. References Bernard, P. (1997). Envisioned Human Beings: A Psychological Approach to Character and Conflict in Literature. New York: NYU P. Glaspell, S. (2003). Wastes of time. Np: Thomson Wadsworth. Sophocles (1991). Oedipus the King: Oedipus Rex. Trans. George Young. London: Dover.

Gay Domestic Violence Essay - 275 Words

Gay Domestic Violence (Essay Sample) Content: Research Proposal: Do Police Officers Have Negative Attitudes towards Gay Domestic Violence While on the Job?Studentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s NameInstitutionResearch Proposal: Do Police Officers Have Negative Attitudes towards Gay Domestic Violence While on the Job?Police officers come under scrutiny when it comes to the violation of human rights. In this research analysis, we have analyzed how police officers react to gay domestic violence.Research QuestionThe research question of the proposed study: Do police officers have negative attitudes towards gay domestic violence while on the job.Previous ResearchSeveral previous studies have handled the same topic. Most of the findings from the studies have shown that police officers have negative attitudes towards gay domestic violence. Melton (1999) conducted a research on the issue of police and their reaction to gay violence. In his research titled à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Police Response to Domestic Violence,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ he presented his find ings in a diverse manner. According to him, the best way to understand the police officers' attitudes towards gay domestic violence is to take into consideration issues from a historical perspective (Melton, 1999). Historically, there has been an antagonistic relationship between the police officers and the gay community (Melton, 1999). In the past, gay relationship was illegal, and the police officers used to hunt down the gay community. In this process of law enforcing, a bitter relationship built up between the police officers and the gay community. Because of the antagonism in the past, current gay domestic violence cases remain unreported as the gay community still has the phobia.A study by Kuehnle Sullivan (2003) also put some importance on this topic. According to their findings, some police officers have the homophobia culture (Kuehnle Sullivan, 2003). This irrational hatred and fear of gay of the police influences their action when dealing with cases of gay domestic viole nce. As a result, most police officers on duty tend to distance themselves from the cases of gay domestic violence presented to them (Kuehnle Sullivan, 2003). Consequently, abusive gay partners take the advantage of the homophobia of the police to control and dominate their partners. Therefore, the abused partners continue suffering because they are less assured that the police or the justice system will not help them because they are homophobic. The victimization surveys undertaken between the 1980s and the 1990s showed that in the United Kingdom and United States of America (USA) and Australia showed that 70-80% of the gay men experienced physical violence (Kuehnle Sullivan, 2003). Unfortunately, most of the cases remained unreported because of the perception that the police and legal system of the respective countries were homophobic (Kuehnle Sullivan, 2003).On the other hand, the police officers believe that gay domestic violence is not as severe as the situation involving a woman abused by a male partner (Seelau Seelau, 2005). In their study titled à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Gender role stereotypes and perceptions of heterosexual, gay and lesbian domestic violence,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ there is a perception that police officers treat gays unfairly (Seelau Seelau, 2005). The police officers also believe that the gay partners receive mutual abuse because the relationship involves same gender partners. Thus, the police officers tend to attend to cases involving heterosexual domestic violence more as compared to gay domestic violence (Seelau Seelau, 2005). For instance, they have the understanding that in a gay relationship, one partner acts as a female and the other partner as a male. However, the previous research outcomes have not thoroughly examined the attitude of police officers towards the gay domestic violence. The previous studies have acted as a foundation to conduct the research that is going to examine the relationship. In addition, this research is going to be a concrete foundation for future studies on the same topic.HypothesesThree hypotheses will be guiding the study. The study will work with three hypotheses, two research hypotheses and one null hypothesis. The first research hypothesis reads: police officers have negative attitudes towards gay domestic violence. The other research hypothesis reads: there is an antagonistic relationship between police officers and the gay community. The null hypothesis of the study will see if police officers have negative attitudes towards gay domestic violence, and they have a good relationship with the gay community.Independent VariablesThe study will have five independent variables. The first independent variable is the age of the police officers involved in the study. The operational definition of the variable will define the age of the police officer participating in the study. The third variable will be the causes of gay domestic violence and its operational definition as how many cases of gay d omestic violence have each police officer handled. The variable will measure using a ratio scale. The third independent variable will be the sexual orientation of the police officers involved in the study. The operational definition study the sexual orientation of the police o...

The Management Of The Production Essay - 1638 Words

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 PROJECT SUMMARY: The management of the production is done by the production manager manually which is a difficult process. The Project deals with the development of the computerized system for maintaining the regular records. The Project consists of various forms and developed with the help of the PHP Programming. The system has a module called Operation, which consists of the details of all employees that is needed to be filled in the form. The other module called the Product, which has information about the product stock. The module called employee Management, which process all information about the staff like address, phone number, joining date, permanent address. The other module called the Report, for maintaining the data in a database. The Report Form module has several sub reports of details like Regular details, employee report ,purchase report, sale report, and monthly production report. The described record forms are maintained in a database file. The system password for each module has been included to make it secure. 1.2 PURPOSE: The Proposed System has the ado connectivity for the database. This helps to work in several modules at the same time. The Mysql Database is used to make the database. The system design has included around many forms and all fundamental are combined. The forms are designed which is aimed to develop a four stage design. 1. Data Structure 2. Software Architecture 3. Procedural Design 4. Characteristic TheShow MoreRelatedProduction And Operations Management : Production Management Essay941 Words   |  4 Pagesused in the production/operations subsystem of the organization into value added product/services in a controlled manner as per the policies of the organization, is the definition of Production/operations management. 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PRODUCT Though many authors define the product with Consumer orientation, it is better for us to deal with different angles, because it will be helpful for us to understand the subject of production and Operation Management. (i) For a Consumer: The product is a combination of or optimalRead MoreHistory of Production Management3338 Words   |  14 Pagesindustry. Thomas Newcomen in 1705, improving upon an earlier patent by John Calley, successfully built a steam engine that pumped water from coal mines. In 1760 John Smeaton applied the steam engine to fan the furnaces used in manufacturing iron. Iron production rose from 12 tons per furnace to 40 tons per furnace. This increased productivity made available a large supply of iron at low cost, and led to new uses for iron: bridges, ships, and other machines. 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SPC is aRead MoreProduction Operation Management1195 Words   |  5 PagesProduction Operations Management Session 3-2 More on Processes 1 Outline ï‚ § Multi-product, multi-flow process analysis – So far: 1 product, 1 flow – Differing process times, yield issues, machine breakdown ï‚ § Big Takeaway: – Product-mix becomes critical in multiple flows – Implications in capital investment, scaling business, and risk management ï‚ § Calculating capacity when you have – Multiple flows †¢ With the same processing time at each resource †¢ With different processing

Victory in the North Us Civil War - 1003 Words

| Victory in The North | A synopsis on the outcome of the U.S. Civil War | | [Type the author name] | 11/6/2010 | | Since the final battle of the American Civil War was fought in 1865, scholars have debated the reasons for the Union’s victory over the Confederacy. Historians have attributed the war’s outcome to many factors, some of which include Lincoln’s superior leadership, the South’s failure to diplomatically secure foreign intervention, emancipated slaves enlisting in the Union army, and the military strategies employed by the North’s generals. Both the Union and Confederacy expected a quick victory, each believing it possessed several advantages over the other. In the end, however, the North’s overwhelming†¦show more content†¦The North had a better transportation network which aided in their victory of the war. The excellent and extensive railway system linked the cities and allowed cheap and quick movement of the troops and supplies. Key to the North’s victory in this area was in the management of the supplies and logistics by Uni on officials such as Quartermaster General Montgomery Meigs and military railroad administrators Daniel McCallum and Herman Haupt. According to author James McPherson, these men and other officials â€Å"organized the northern economy and the logistical flow of supplies to Union armies with unprecedented efficiency and abundance in which the Confederacy could not match (139).† The South, on the other hand, committed to a cotton economy and decided to remain with inefficient manual labor - slave labor - as its path to future growth. It rejected building its own factories, preferring to ship cotton to mills in New England and relying on exports to England. A system such as this would inevitably be unable to compete with the more efficient North in the long term, particularly in the areas of communications, mechanical labor, logistics, and agriculture and food production. 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In the early 1800’s the United States accomplished harmony, alliance, and unification, eventually causing sectionalism to flourish. This controversy led to the famous bloody war, known as the Civil war. While the south wanted to separate

Regulatory Challenges of Virtual Currencies

Question: Discuss about the Regulatory Challenges of Virtual Currencies. Answer: Introduction: In accordance with the definition of Law dictionary of Duhaime, money is an acceptable item for payment for debts or to be provided against the consumption of goods and services. In general term, it is considered to be a consideration which passes freely. Definition covered in case of Moss v Hancock [1899] is wide, but it depends on time place and context. If we consider in terms of the primitive economy, then money will be restricted to the coins, but if we consider in term of modern execution, then it will be limited to legal tender. In accordance with the case of Astbury J general rule of construction must prevail while considering a particular item as money. Characteristics of money In the case of Re Mellor [1929], they had identified 5 legal characteristics of money i.e. It does not have intrinsic value in the law of the material consumed, but the value will be sum or unit in which that coin or note is denominated. Money is not bought or exchanged. However, it has major exception that in the situation where notes or coins are collectors items considered as ordinary commodities with stated values. Money is negotiable. As per this characteristic, money is received in good faith in order to obtain good title. Money is fungible in nature i.e. legally interchangeable with the units of same denominated values The creditor is not in a situation to demand or obliged to accept anything other than money for the purpose of discharge of debt unless otherwise agreed. Evaluation of virtual currency in form of money On the basis of these characteristics, virtual currency can be considered as money. It is because; It do not have intrinsic value in law as it is intangible in nature value of virtual currency is determined on the basis of its denominated value. Further, it is fungible and negotiable in nature. It is because it is received in good faith and can be legally interchangeable with the units of same denominated values. According to the definition provided by European central bank, it is the type of unfettered digital money which is distributed and controlled by its developing authority. Virtual currency is accepted and used by the virtual community, and it is freely transferred by one party to another. It is accepted by legal or natural persons as means of payment in trading activities and can be stored and transferred by them. Conclusion By considering above described case facts and its applicability on virtual currency, it can be concluded that virtual currency satisfied the definition cited in the case of Moss v Hancock. It is because; it contains all legal characteristics of money and certified for trading transactions. However in certain cases consideration of virtual currency is still questionable because native or transnational, cannot make something money in the absenteeism of an exercise of monetary sovereignty by the State concerned. Bibliography European Central Bank. "1". Virtual Currency Schemes (PDF). Frankfurt am Main: European Central Bank. p. 5. ISBN 978-92-899-0862-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-11-06. Murphy G, The Regulatory Challenges of Virtual Currencies. (Central Bank of Ireland 2014).

Patrick Henry free essay sample

The Urgency for True Liberty Liberty is acquired through will and perseverance, however, it can also be taken away, and forces people to fight to keep it as well. That was what Patrick Henry states in his speech, â€Å"Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death†, to the Virginia Convention. He argues that the leaders of America are not taking control and responsibility for what is really going on, and demands that something must be done to finally conquer the beloved goal of independence from Britain. This speech raises many ideas of what liberty really is, and how some people view the term liberty different from one another. Arguments can be made on the question of what is liberty, and if true liberty can even be reached in society. Nonetheless, Henry makes valid arguments, which I support, however, there are some other counter-arguments that I will debunk. Patrick Henrys main argument, which I agree with, is to exclaim that the Convention is puttering around the idea of reconciliation with Britain, while it is clear that there mostly would not be any progress in its regards. We will write a custom essay sample on Patrick Henry or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The stalling and unpreparedness of the American government was evident, and why sit around and wait for nothing but hope that Britain will let loose its chains of control over America? Henry realizes that Britain is the enemy and is, in a sense toying, with America, giving hope for a resolution that will not happen. Henry urges the leaders of America to stop being content on hope, yet raise an army to fight for liberty and independence from the monarchy, because it has yet to happen. This situation was similar to three events I will now discuss. The first event involves the African Americans hopes for abolition from slavery, and in turn, gain equal liberties that white Americans possessed. Yes, slavery had been abolished, but did the African Americans have equal liberties as the whites did? They did not. They could not vote, nor have good paying jobs, and were socially segregated from the whites. It was not until the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s when they received full access to all deserving liberties of the American Constitution. Martin Luther King Jr. along with hundreds of thousands of African Americans protested for equal rights and liberties that white Americans possessed. They fought for their rights and freedoms and acquired them. They did not sit back and wait for change to happen, which would have been just dandy with the majority of the United States Congress, and much of America in general. Much of America was content with how blacks were treated unjustly, and would have been that way for years to come. Thi s proves that fighting for your liberty is the only way to obtain it. Another event I would like to discuss is the action taken by the French commoners during the French Revolution. They were disgusted with the absolutism philosophy of Louis XVI controlling every aspect of the French nation. They could not sit back, while starving from lack of food, and weak from lack of power, much longer. They banded together, came as one and took control of their liberties by overthrowing the French Monarchy and took control of their country. This again proves that fighting for liberty is the only way to acquire it. The final event is the Womens Rights Movement. The American government was content on keeping women powerless, without political involvement, no career opportunities, and no authority. They had no say in their own democracy, yet expected to be a loyal citizen to a nation that did not think much about them in the first place. They fought for their rights and liberties, and eventually got them. Liberty has many definitions. It can mean, autonomous, the freedom from servitude and confinement of oppression, or immunity from arbitrary exercise of authority. Each definition of liberty covers any of the events I have mentioned. My point, along with Henrys argument is that in a vast majority of cases, change cannot be made by hope alone, but rather by actions. Hope is good, it inspires actions for change, but wars are not won and liberties are not gained by just hope alone. Next, I will talk about what Henry is not arguing. Although it might seem that Patrick Henry is tearing down the government, he is not. He is not questioning the governments abilities or the intelligence of the people who run the country. He states, â€Å"No man thinks more highly than I do of the patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the House. † He also does not argue the governments overall goal of American independence, by stating previously â€Å"the patriotism† in the previous excerpt of his speech I presented. He knows the government wants independence from Britain, and does not possess a hidden agenda, that contradicts its principles. He just disagrees with how the government is handling the matter by stating, â€Å"But different men often see the same subject in different lights . Henry is also not arguing the attempts to reconcile with Britain, but in which the time it has taken and no progress being made. He asks, â€Å"Have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to win back our love? †, with the reason to make clear that America has asked and wanted reconciliation with Britain, but for some reason Britain must use threatening armies to scare America into submission. He believes in America, and knows that once the country sticks up for itself, that they can win the battle of oppression, and claim its overall goal of independence. I believe Henrys war cries are evident, and shows that he believes that his country can, indeed, defeat the controlling bully Britain. You may have objections to Henrys or my arguments. You might ask, why not just wait for reconciliation, how does Henry know it will not happen? His response is, â€Å"I know of no way of judging of the future but by the past, I wish to know what there has been in the conduct of the British ministry for the last ten years to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been pleased to solace themselves and the House. † The facts have been spilled out for what he says, ten years. For ten years prior to his speech what exactly has gone on to make the government so content and pleased. Nothing has been, the government has not told of anything new in regards to discussions with Britain. Basically, for ten years no progress has been made, so what makes anyone in their right mind think that something will happen soon. It would be as if you are asking your superior for an increase in pay after working for a long time. Each time you ask politely, and he or she brushes you off, showing lack of respect and appreciation, you just deal with it. You bosss intentions have yet to change, when exactly, do you think they will? It is as if you are a measly pawn in their game of chess, yet they can advance, but you are in a stalemate at all times. Perhaps you may be one to take this cruel and undeserving treatment, but I would not. This proves that you must fight for what you believe in. Another objection may be that if you chose to fight, how could you raise an army vast enough to defeat the British? While this argument is yet a good one, let us not forget how the Americans have advantages. The British would be fighting in the Americans backyard. How is this an advantage you might ask? Our soldiers would know the terrain better than any of the British soldiers would. They would know how harsh the winters can be, and would be prepared for the worst, while the British, relatively new to the American climate and terrain would be worn down and defeated in spirit. Battered from the harsh and severe conditions, and also lack of knowledge of the land and certain locations, could leave the British perplexed. Another advantage would be the American spirit itself. They say a creature is most dangerous when its back is against the wall, and if this is not a case for the Americans, I do not know what would be. Is this not the case? The Americans have much more to fight for and so much more to lose, so their mentality would be much stronger and their will would be more greater than any enemy wanting to take their liberties away. It is not the size of the dog in the fight, but it is the size of the fight in the dog. Another valid argument could be the question of should Americans risk defeat? Well isnt it a risk willing to be taken? Henry states, â€Å"They tell us, sir, that we are weak. But when shall we be stronger? Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? †. He knows that the British are somewhat hesitant as well to fight the Americans, or they would have done it already. The British know that it would be a tough fight and I believe were hoping that America would not fight. With the millions of liberty hungry Americans, they would indeed defeat the British. Henry brings up the argument of acting soon, before Britain takes total control of everything, or he says, â€Å"Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be stationed in every house? . The bottom line is eventually, if no action is taken, it would not matter if the Americans lost the battle, because the British would eventually take over anyway. Why not stop Britains continuous gaining of control and fight while America still has a chance. In a sense, America has nothing to lose and everything to gain, and it is a risk worthy to take. This proves that fighting for your liberty is basically the only way you can possess it, which leads me to my conclusion. Liberty is always earned, and must be fought for to keep. It is a simple pleasure most of us take for granted, and we should always keep in mind why we are so lucky to have it. Patrick Henry spoke of his aspirations to fight for liberty and also his willingness to die for it as well. Therefore, his war cry reached the millions of ears of Americans and spread throughout the nation. The Americans soon took his words and dreams, and decided that it was time to fight for what might get taken completely away from them. As we all know, the Americans did defeat the British, and were finally free from British tyranny, eventually becoming the most powerful and free nation on earth. We should never forget how important the words of Patrick Henry were to the United States of America, for you can make the argument that for those words alone created a nation that we have today. We must always remember those who have fought for this great nation, and understand why they did, and humble ourselves, for it can always be threatened to be taken away again. If and when that time comes, we must not forget our ancestors actions, but to follow in their footsteps. We must never let them die in vain.

20 Description Essay Topics Top Points to Discuss in Business Communication Niche

20 Description Essay Topics Top Points to Discuss in Business Communication Niche If you are tasked with writing a description essay on business communication, it is important that you have a good topic in mind. Picking the topic can be tricky which is why you will find a list of 20 potential topics for your disposal below: Difference between General Communication and Business Communication Business Communication Cognizant of Technological Differences in a Global Environment Two Business Communication Activities: Internal Versus External Concise Necessity of Business Communication Business Communication Cognizant of Competitive Differences in a Global Environment How Business Communication Obtains Actions from Recipients Stakeholder Management and Business Communication Business Communication Cognizant of Ethical Differences in a Global Environment Types of Business Documents Requiring Business Communication Business Communication and External Image Business Communication Cognizant of Geographic Differences in a Global Environment Business Communication and Completion of Company Objectives Surviving Continual Change Processes with Business Communication Business Communication Cognizant of Cultural Differences in a Global Environment The Four Basic Elements to Communication Different Channels and Mediums for Business Communication Clarity of Purpose for Business Communication Response Elements in Business Communication Active Listening and Controlled Emotions for Business Communication Feedback Within the Business Communication Process Sample Description Essay on Stakeholder Management and Business Communication In any project, there are stakeholders to consider. The term â€Å"stakeholders† refers to any individuals or organizations who have participated in the project or were affected by the project (Cleland Ireland 2002, p. 324). Wideman (1998, p. 433) classifies stakeholders into one of three areas for any project: Project champions – These stakeholders offer the financial resources necessary for the project. They might include investors, clients, project sponsors, or top tier management. Project participants – These stakeholders are tasked with heading the project. They may consist of project managers, regulatory authorities, the government, or product and service suppliers. External stakeholders – These stakeholders are critical to the success of the project, while not implementing first hand or financing it. They may consist of community leaders, the media, family members of any company employees, and social and/or interest groups. Stakeholder management needs to be structured, seeking to evaluate what influence each project stakeholder has within the confines of the project, and which will produce the best possible outcome for the project (Calvert 1995, p. 214). This process is integrated into this particular project. The stakeholder management plan provides all stakeholders with timely information throughout the duration of the project that is relevant and accurate. The stakeholders are then given an opportunity to raise any concerns, make any recommendations, or provide their input on the project. The publicity team is tasked with handling the communication of the stakeholders through appropriate company channels. One of the important components of human resources theory is maintaining healthy relationships with stakeholders. Having positive communication is the hallmark of this and plays a large role in whether the objectives of the project will succeed or fail. A company should recognize how important proper communication with stakeholders is toward the overall success of the project, because of the roles that each stakeholder plays (Back Moreau 2001, p.  12). In any business project, a project management team would be responsible for the completion of all project-related work and business communication therein. They are tasked with handling all resources allocated to the project and the intermediary with top management. The top management plays an active role in the success of the project (Gray Larson 2003, p. 25). The work of top management includes approving any funding, which becomes a priority for the organization. The project sponsors also have influence toward the outcome of the project, as their approval is necessary to move forward. As such, the project management team adopts a strategy to enable approval from primary stakeholders at the start of the project and the corresponding milestones (Kerzner 1998, p. 145). In addition, the stakeholders are all informed of the progress being made throughout each stage of the project. This allows for concerns to be addressed rightly, preventing aggrieved stakeholders from taking future acti on to impede the completion of the project. This would also allow for improved business communication throughout the duration of the project. This level of business communication extends to employees who are all a part of the business and project. Cleland and Ireland (2002, p. 312) note that employees are the most important resource an organization can have, and the manner in which they are organized is the key to how effectively utilized they can be. If a company lacks a proper organizational structure, conflict and interference will arise, all of which will impede the progress of the project. The goals of each project management team must be in alignment with the goals of the project, the organizational members (employees), and the stakeholders. The organizational structure needs to be optimized based on the members tasked to the project, and the type of project. By ensuring that proper communication is handled throughout the business project lifespan, all key stakeholders can have their needs addressed in a proper business communicative manner. References: Alred, Gerald J., Charles T. Brusaw, and Walter E. Oliu.  The business writers handbook. Macmillan, 2011. Back, E Moreau, A 2001, ‘Information management strategies for project management’, Project Management Journal, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 10-19, Calvert, S 1995, ‘Managing stakeholders’, in R Turner (ed.), The commercial project manager: managing owners sponsors partners supporters stakeholders contractors and consultants, McGraw-Hill, London, pp. 214-222. Cleland, I Ireland, R 2002, ‘Project planning’, in Project management: Strategic design and implementation, 4th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 309-332. Hatch, R. A. Communication Theory In Business Communication.  Business Communication Quarterly  35.2 (1972): 26-28. Web. Hildebrandt, Herbert William.  International Business Communication. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, University of Michigan, 1981. Print. OHair, Dan, Hannah Rubenstein, and Rob Stewart.  A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking: A PDF-style e-book. Macmillan Higher Education, 2012. Rai, Urmila, and S. M Rai.  Business Communication. Mumbai [India]: Himalaya Pub. House, 2008. Print. Thill, John V, and Courtland L BoveÃŒ e.  Excellence In Business Communication. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. Print. Wideman, M 1998, ‘How to motivate all stakeholders to work together’, in DI Cleland (ed.), Field guide to project management, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. pp. 431-437. Williams, Joseph M., and Joseph Bizup.  Style: The Basics. Longman, 2015.

Primates Zoo Activity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Primates Zoo Activity - Essay Example This essay "Primates Zoo Activity" talks about the of three types of primates: the white-handed gibbon, lemur, and Bolivian gray titi monkey to analyze their the physical characteristics and types of behaviors, as well as the frequency of behaviors in a zoo environment. Lemurs are believed to have evolved from the anthropoid primates, but studies have evidenced otherwise and that they only share the behavioral as well as morphological traits with the basal primates. The ring-tailed lemurs are known for their nocturnal habits and slow pace. Lemurs have low metabolic rates and show dormancy. At the zoo, each lemur weighed between 2 to 4 kilograms. This light-weight makes them arboreal quadrupedal walkers, but it runs quadrupedally on the ground. They show marked sexual dimorphism. At the zoo, the family group comprised of one large male, 3 females and 4 offsprings. They are gentle and we joked about its huge eyes. White-handed gibbons are diurnal, natural aerial acrobats and are fairly awkward on the ground. They have long fingers and limbs, special thumbs and strong arms are specialized to the arboreal life in their forest home. Stewart and Harcourt shared the view that as the white-handed gibbons swing from limb to limb, they usually hook their fingers lightly over the branches. Their intelligence in locomotion makes them quick and efficient when moving from feeding to escaping from predators. About its morphology, I recorded that the white-handed gibbon lacks a tail and has a throat sac located beneath the chin.

Preliminary ruling procedure and family reunification rules in the EU Term Paper - 1

Preliminary ruling procedure and family reunification rules in the EU - Term Paper Example The primary purpose of framing policies, rules and regulations is to protect the citizens and safeguard their interests. Countries that host citizens from other countries desire to limit the number of their families coming to the host countries primarily with an objective of safeguarding the interests of the natives. However, every law leaves scope for exemptions based on peculiar circumstances or situations that warrant the relaxation of the law, depending on the merits of specific individual cases. In the instant case, despite the fact that the relevant laws in Caledonia do not permit family reunification with children, the unique circumstances under which Cathy’s case deserve merit need to be considered. It transpires that laws in New Caledonia, which preempts the appellant from the family reunion with her children, focus on the â€Å"preservation of the specificity of certain regions within the Member States† and it becomes a difficult proposition to exercise European citizenship-rights in sub-nations (Kochenov 308). Therefore, many people have started to feel the necessity for the provision of a â€Å"legal assessment of the regional citizenships found in EU Member States† with reference to the laws of the EU (308). The instant case illustrates how the technical snags in legal systems affect individuals and their families, especially when they are ailing and requiring the presence and support of family members. Thus, in the absence of specific laws in New Caledonia to permit Cathy’s reunion with her children, the case needs to be reviewed from the perspective of the aforesaid two directives. Evidence also suggests that the current legal framework pertaining to regional citizenship tends to â€Å"discriminate on the basis of nationality† as can be perceived in the case of Cathy (309). As a consequence, one region prevents a person from citizenship there, while other regions

Market Louis Vuitton on Social Network Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Market Louis Vuitton on Social Network - Essay Example Overview of the Company Established in 1854, the brand Louis Vuitton was opened by designer Louis Vuitton who entered the art circle by making travel accessories but soon began exploring the industry of fashion, which lead him to make his mark as a premium fashion brand. However, LV is still known for its premium handbags and luggage collection. Louis Vuitton has over 300 outlets in over 500 countries exceeding the brand value of both Prada and Gucci. Louis Vuitton is considered among the best 100 brands of the world, with a higher ranking than other global brands including Pizza Hut, MTV, Apple, Adidas and Chanel (Haig, 2011). Such is the value of Louis Vuitton that its trademark is automatically registered along with its trademark patterns. Certain patterns and style of handbags are classic LV style such as the beige and brown checker design known as the Daimer, which is one of the premier designs by Louis Vuitton. Louis Vuitton operates as a major brand with more than sixty sub-br ands opened under it, including Taug Heuer, Givenchy, Emilio Pucci Parfums, and Marc Jacobs etc. Each brand is considered as the premium brand in its category and is associated with luxury and quality (LMVH, 2012). The brand has been said to develop its presence as a top luxury brand through the strategy of celebrity endorsement. The first celebrity endorsement of Louis Vuitton occurred through Empress Euigine, Napoleon’s wife who loved the brand and its quality. The Empress became a symbol for Louis Vuitton that was later carried on by other leading celebrities including Audrey Hepburn and Jennifer Lopez. Right now, the brand ambassador for Loius Vuitton is Angelina Jolie who continues to be photographed with Louis Vuitton handbags. History of Louis Vuitton Louis Vuitton began as a... Louis Vuitton operates as a major brand with more than sixty sub-brands opened under it, including Taug Heuer, Givenchy, Emilio Pucci Parfums, and Marc Jacobs etc. Each brand is considered as the premium brand in its category and is associated with luxury and quality (LMVH, 2012). The brand has been said to develop its presence as a top luxury brand through the strategy of celebrity endorsement. The first celebrity endorsement of Louis Vuitton occurred through Empress Euigine, Napoleon’s wife who loved the brand and its quality. The Empress became a symbol for Louis Vuitton that was later carried on by other leading celebrities including Audrey Hepburn and Jennifer Lopez. Right now, the brand ambassador for Loius Vuitton is Angelina Jolie who continues to be photographed with Louis Vuitton handbags. History of Louis Vuitton Louis Vuitton began as a luggage designer in 1854 in Paris. Realizing the need for a change in the design of the HJ Cave’s rounded top trunks; Louis Vuitton came up with flat-bottom trunks that allowed to better storage and durability. From the beginning, Louis Vuitton developed itself as a symbol of quality and its products were associated with the rich and the elite. In order to prevent others from copying the designs, the designer continuously upgraded his designs and patterns to maintain interest in the brand (Condora, 2008). With time, Louis Vuitton diversified into other travel accessories including handbags, clutches and other small luggage pieces.

Images, Imagery, Symbols, and Symbolism in Macbeth Essay -- Macbeth es

Imagery and Symbolism in Macbeth  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   With its eye-opening plot and interesting cast of characters, William Shakespeare’s play, Macbeth is one of the greatest works one could ever read. But, above all, the aspect of the play is most impressive and overwhelming with imagery and symbolism that Shakespeare so brilliantly uses. Throughout the play, the author depicts various types of imagery and symbolism instances that, eventually, lead to the downfall of the main character, Macbeth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Instances of imagery and symbolism are seen throughout the play. Imagery and symbolism are unavoidable features in William Shakespeare’s Macbeth. One of the most prominent symbolic factors in the play is the presence of blood. It has been noted that the presence of blood â€Å"increases the feelings or fear , horror , and pain† (Spurgeon , Pg. 20). From the appearance of the bloody sergeant in the second scene of the to the very last scene , there is a continued vision of blood all throughout the play. The imagery of blood seems to affect almost all the characters in the play. It affects Lady Macbeth in the scene in which she is found sleepwalking talking to herself after the murders of Duncan and Banquo : â€Å"Here’s the smell of the blood still. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.† Also , the blood imagery is present in the â€Å"weird sisters† , or witches. Most evidently , i t is present in act four, scene one, when Macbeth visits the witches to seek their insight and his fortune for the future. He is shown three apparitions , one of which is a bloody child that commands him to â€Å"Be bloody , bold and resolute : laugh to scorn†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Although blood imagery deals with almost all the characters of the play , no where i... ..., New York, Viking Publishing, 1993. Gove, Philip Babcock. Webster’s Third International Dictionary.   Springfield, Mass: G. & C. Merriam, 1967 Jorgensen, Paul A.   Our Naked Frailties.   Los Angeles: U of CA, 1971. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. New York: Penguin Books, 1987. Shakespeare, William.   Tragedy of Macbeth . Ed. Barbara Mowat and Paul  Ã‚   Warstine. New York: Washington Press, 1992.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Staunten, Howard, The Complet Illustrated Shakespeare, New York, Park Lane Publishing, 1979. Steevens, George. Shakespeare, The Critical Heritage. Vol. 6. London:  Ã‚   Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981.  Ã‚   Watson, Robert.   Thriftless Ambition, Foolish Wishes, and the Tragedy of Macbeth . Shakespeare and the Hazards of Ambition. Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress, 1984.  Ã‚   Wills, Gary. Witches & Jesuits. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.        

Hydraulic Design of Small Hydro Plants

Version 2 STANDARDS/MANUALS/ GUIDELINES FOR SMALL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT Civil Works – Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants Lead Organization: Sponsor: Alternate Hydro Energy Center Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Govt. of India May 2011 AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  1 1. GUIDELINES FOR HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF SMALL HYDRO PLANTS This section provides standards and guidelines on the design of the water conductor system.This system includes; head works and intake, feeder canal, desilter (if required), power canal or alternative conveyance structures (culverts, pipelines, tunnels, etc), forebay tank, penstock and surge tank (if required) up to the entry of the turbine, tailrace canal below the turbine and related ancillary works. 1. 1 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF HEAD WORKS In general head works are composed of three structural components, diversion dam, intake and b ed load sluice. The functions of the head works are: Diversion of the required project flow from the river into the water conductor system.Control of sediment. Flood handling. Typically a head pond reservoir is formed upstream of the head works. This reservoir may be used to provide daily pondage in support of peaking operation or to provide the control volume necessary for turbine operation in the water level control mode. This latter case would apply where the penstock draws its water directly from the head pond. Sufficient volume must be provided to support these functions. There are three types of head works that are widely used on mini and small hydro projects, as below: Lateral intake head works Trench intake head worksReservoir / canal intakes Each type will be discussed in turn. 1. 1. 1 Head Works with Lateral Intakes (Small Hydro) Head works with lateral intakes are typically applied on rivers transporting significant amounts of sediment as bed load and in suspension. The f unctional objectives are: To divert bed-load away from the intake and flush downstream of the dam (the bed load flushing system should be operable in both continuous and intermittent modes). To decant relatively clean surface water into the intake. To arrest floating debris at intake trashracks for removal by manual raking.To safely discharge the design flood without causing unacceptable upstream flooding. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  2 The following site features promote favourable hydraulic conditions and should be considered during site selection: The intake should be located on the outside of a river bend (towards the end of the bend) to benefit from the spiral current in the river that moves clean surface water towards the intake and bed load away from the intake towards the centre of the river.The intake should be located at the head of a steeper section of the river. This will promote remo val of material flushed through the dam which may otherwise accumulate downstream of the flushing channel and impair its function. Satisfactory foundation conditions. Ideal site conditions are rare, thus design will require compromises between hydraulic requirements and constraints of site geology, accessibility etc. The following guidelines assume head works are located on a straight reach of a river. For important projects or unusual sites hydraulic model studies are recommended.A step by step design approach is recommended and design parameters are suggested for guidance in design and layout studies. Typical layouts are shown in Figures 2. 2. 1 to 2. 2. 3. 1. 1. 2 Data Required for design. The following data are required for design: Site hydrology report as stipulated in Section 1. 3 of this Standard giving: – Qp (plant flow) – Q100 (design flood flow, small hydro) – Q10 (design flood flow, mini hydro) (data on suspended sediment loads) – Cw – H -Q Curves (W. L. rating curves at diversion dam) Topographic mapping of the site including river bathymetry covering all head works structure sites.Site geology report. 1. 1. 3 Site Selection: Selection of the head works site is a practical decision which involves weighing of several factors including hydraulic desiderata (Section 2. 2. 1/1. 0), head optimization, foundation conditions, accessibility and constructability factors. Given the importance of intake design to the overall performance of the plant it is recommended that an experienced hydraulic engineer be consulted during studies on head works layout. 1. 1. 4 Determination of Key Elevations: AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  3For the illustrative example: Qp = 10. 0 m3/s Determine V0 = 0. 5 Q0. 2 (= 0. 792, say 0. 80 m/s) (= 12. 5 m2) A0 = Q ? V0 A0 H= (= 1. 77 m, say 1. 80 m) 4 Assume L = 4H (= 7. 08 m, say 7. 0 m) ye = greater of 0. 5 yo o r 1. 5 m (= 1. 80m) yd = L. S (= 0. 28 m) NOL = Z0 + ye + yd + H NOL = 97. 5 + 1. 80 + 0. 28 + 1. 80 (=101. 38m, say 101. 50 m) Sill = NOL – H (= 99. 7m) Crest of weir or head pond NOL = 101. 5 m Height of weir = 4. 0 m These initial key elevations are preliminary and may have to be adjusted later as the design evolves. 1. 1. 5 Head Works LayoutThe entry to the intake should be aligned with the river bank to provide smooth approach conditions and minimize the occurrence of undesirable swirl. A guide wall acting as a transition between the river bank and the structure will usually be required. Intake hydraulics are enhanced if the intake face is slightly tilted into the flow. The orientation of the intake face depends on river bank topography, for straight river reaches the recommended values for tilt vary from 10o to 30o depending on the author. When this angle becomes too large the intake will attract excessive amounts of sediment and floating debris.It is recommended that t he sill level of the intake is kept sufficiently higher than the sill level of the under sluice. The under sluice should be located adjacent to the intake structure. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  4 For development of the head work plan, it is recommended that the following parameters be used for layout: Axis of intake should between 100 ° to 105 ° to axis of diversion structure The actual inclination may be finalized on the basis of model studies. Divide wall, if provided, should cover 80% to 100% of the intake.Assume flushing flow equal to twice project flow then estimate the width and height of the flushing gate from orifice formula,: Example should be in appendix. Qf = 0. 6 ? 0. 5W2 Where: Qf = flushing flow W = gate width H = gate height (= 0. 5W) Yo = normal flow depth as shown in 2. 2. 1. 1/2. 0 Sill should be straight and perpendicular to the flow direction. In the sample design (Fig. 2 . 2. 1. 1) the axis of the intake = 105 ° & Qf = 2. 0? 10. 0 = 20m3/s ? 20. 0 = 0. 6 ? 0. 5 W2 ? W = 2. 8 m (say 3. 0m) and H = 1. 5 m. 1. 1. 6 Flood Handling, MFL and Number of Gates.For small hydro a simple overflow diversion weir would be the preferred option if flood surcharge would not cause unacceptable upstream flooding. For purpose of illustration, the following design data are assumed (see Figure 2. 2. 2): Design flood, Q100 = 175 m3/s A review of reservoir topography indicated that over bank flooding would occur if the flood water level exceeded 103. 0 m. Select this water level as the MFL. This provides a flood surcharge (S) of 1. 20 m. Assume weir coefficients as below: Gate, Cw = 1. 70 – – – sill on slab at river bottom. Weir, Cw = 1. 0 – – – – – – -ogee profile. Assume gate W/H ratio = 1:2 H = 4. 0 m ? W = 4. 8 (say 5. 0 m) MFL. = NOL + 1. 50 (= 103. 0m) Qgate = Cw. W. (MFL – ZS)1.. 5 Qweir = Cw. L w. S1. 5 Capacity check for MFL = 103. 0 m No. of Length of Overflow QG Gates Section (m) (m3/s) 0 35. 0 0. 0 1 29. 0 109. 6 QW (m3/s) 82. 8 68. 6 QT (m3/s) 82. 8 178. 2 >175 AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  5 Therefore one gate is sufficient. Where: MFL = Maximum flood level (m) NOL = Normal operating level (m) S = flood surcharge above NOL (m)W = width of gate (m) H = height of gate (m) ZS = elevation of gate sill (m) = weir coefficient (m0. 5s-1) Cw QG, QW, QT = gate, weir and total flows The flow capacity of the sediment flushing gate may also be included in calculating flood handling capacity. 1. 1. 7 Diversion structure and Spillway Plains Rivers: Stability of structures founded on alluvial foundations typical of plains rivers, is governed by the magnitude of the exit gradient. The critical gradient is approximately 1. 0 and shall be reduced by the following safety factors: Types of foundationS hingles / cobbles Coarse sand Fine sand Safety factor 5 6 7 Allowable Exit Gradient 0. 20 0. 167 0. 143 Also diversion structures on plains rivers will normally require stilling basins to dissipate the energy from the fall across the diversion structure before the water can be returned safely to the river. Design of diversion weirs and barrages on permeable foundation should follow IS 6966 (Part 1). Sample calculations in Chapter 12 of â€Å"Fundamentals of Irrigation Engineering† (Bharat Singh, 1983) explain determination of uplift pressure distributions and exit gradients.Further details on structural aspects of design are given in Section 2. 3. 3 of this Standard. Mountain Rivers: Bedrock is usually found at relatively shallow depths in mountain rivers permitting head works structures to be founded on rock. Also the beds of mountain rivers are often boulder paved and are much more resistant to erosion than plains rivers. Therefore there may be no need for a stilling basin. The engineer may consider impact blocks on the downstream apron or simply provide an angled lip at the downstream end of the apron to â€Å"flip† the flow away from the downstream end of the apron.A cut-off wall to bed rock of suitable depth should AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  6 also be provided for added protection against undermining by scour. The head works structures would be designed as gravity structures with enough mass to resist flotation. For low structures height less than 2. 0 m anchors into sound bedrock may be used as the prime stabilization element in dam design. Stability and stress design shall be in accordance with requirements of Section 2. 3. 3 of this Standard. 1. 1. 8 Sediment Flushing Channel To be reviewedThe following approach is recommended for design of the flushing channel: Select flushing channel flow capacity (Qf) = 2? Qp Estimate maximum size of sediment ente ring the pocket from site data or from transport capacity of approaching flow and velocity. In case of diversion weir without gates assume sediment accumulation to be level with the weir crest. (Assume continuous flushing with 3? Qp entering the pocket, for this calculation). Establish entrance sill elevation and channel slope assuming an intermittent flushing mode (intake closed) with Qs = 2Qp, critical flow at the sill, supercritical flow downstream (FN ? 1. 0) and a reservoir operating level 0. 5m below NOL. Determine slope of channel to provide the required scouring velocity, using the following formula which incorporates a safety factor of 1. 5: i = 1. 50 io d 9/7 i0 = 0. 44 6 / 7 q Where: io = critical scouring velocity d = sediment size q = flow per unit width (m3/s per m) Verify that flow through pocket in continuous flushing mode (Qs = 3Qs) will be sub critical, if not lower entrance sill elevation further. Determine height of gate and gate opening based on depth of flow at gate location and corresponding gate width. Increase the above theoretical gate height by 0. 5 m to ensure unrestricted open channel flow through the gate for intermittent flushing mode and a flushing flow of 2 Qp. For initial design a width to height ratio of 2:1 for the flushing gate is suggested. 1. 1. 9 Intake/Head Regulator: In intake provides a transition between the river and the feeder canal. The main design objectives are to exclude bed-load and floating debris and to minimize head losses. The following parameters are recommended: Approach velocity at intake entrance (on gross area) 0. 20 Ve = 0. 5 Q p m / s For trashracks that are manually cleaned, V should not exceed 1. 0 m/s.AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  7 Convergence of side walls 2. 5:1 with rate of increase in velocity not exceeding 0. 5 m/s per linear m. †¢ Height of sill above floor of flushing channel (ye) = greater of 1. 5 m or 50% flow depth. †¢ The floor of the transition should be sloped down as required to join the invert of the feeder canal. Check that the flow velocity in the transition is adequate to prevent deposition in the transition area. If sediment loads are very high consider installing a vortex silt ejector at the downstream end of the transition. Provide coarse trashracks to guard entry to the head gate. The trashrack would be designed to step floating debris such as trees, branches, wood on other floating objects. A clear spacing of 150 mm between bars is recommended. Trashrack detailed design should be in accordance with IS 11388. †¢ The invert of the feeder canal shall be determined taking into consideration head losses through the trashrack and form losses through the structure. Friction losses can be omitted as they are negligible: V2 Calculate form losses as: H L = 0. 3 2 2g Where: V2 = velocity at downstream end of contraction.Calculate trashrack losses as: 4/3 V2 ?t? H L = K f ? ? . Sin? . 2g ?b? Where: Kf = head loss factor (= 2. 42 assuming rectangular bars) T = thickness of bars (mm) B = clear bar spacing (mm) ? = angle of inclination to horizontal (degrees) V = approach velocity (m/s) 1. 1. 10 References on Lateral Intakes and Diversion Weirs. IS Standards Cited: IS 6966 (Part 1) IS 11388 USBR (1987) Singh, Bharat Nigam, P. S. Hydraulic Design of Barrages and Weirs – Guidelines Recommendations for Design of Trashracks for Intakes Design of Small Dams Fundamentals of Irrigation Engineering Nem Chand & Bros. Roorkee (1983) Handbook of Hydroelectric Engineering (Second edition) †¦.. pages 357 to 365 Nem Chand & Bros. – Roorkee (1985) 1. 1. 11 Other References: Bucher and Krumdieck Guidelines for the Design of Intake Structures for Small Hydro Schemes; Hydro ’88/3rd International Conference on Small Hydro, Cancun – Mexico. Bouvard, M. Mobile Barrages and Intakes on Sediment Transporting AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ C ivil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  8 Razvan, E. 1. 2. Rivers; IAHR Monograph, A. A. Balkema – Rotterdam (1992) River Intakes and Diversion DamsElsevier, Amsterdam (1988) SEMI PERMANENT HEADWORKS (MINI HYDRO) For mini hydro projects the need to minimize capital cost of the head works is of prime importance. This issue poses the greatest challenge where the head works have to be constructed on alluvial foundations. This challenge is addressed by adoption of less rigorous standards and the application of simplified designs adapted to the skills available in remote areas. A typical layout is shown in Figure 2. 2. 3. 1. 2. 1 Design Parameters Hydraulic design should be based on the following design criteria: Plant flow Qp) = QT + QD Where: QT = total turbine flow (m3/s) QD = desilter flushing flow (= 0. 20 QT) m3/s QFC = feeder canal flow (= 1. 20 QT) m3/s QF = gravel flushing flow (= 2. 0 QP) Spillway design flow (SDF) = Q10 Where: Q10 = flood peak flow with ten year return period. 1. 2. 2 Layout ? To be reviewed Intake approach velocity = 1. 0 m/s Regulator gate W/H = 2 Flushing channel depth (HD) = 2H + W/3 Flushing channel minimum width = 1. 0 m Assumed flushing gate W/H = 2, determine H from orifice equation, as below: Q f = 0. 53? 2 H 2 . 2 gY1 Y1 = HD for design condition Where: W width of gate (m) H = height of gate (m) Yi = upstream depth (m) = depth of flushing channel (m) HD Select the next largest manufactures standard gate size above the calculated dimensions. 1. 2. 3 Weir AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  9 Determine weir height to suit intake gate and flushing gate dimensions, as shown in Figure 2. 2. 3. For weirs founded on permeable foundations the necessary structure length to control failure by piping should be determined in accordance with Section 2. 2. 1/4. 1 of this Standard.A stepped arrangement is recommended for the downstream face of the weir to dissipate hydraulic energy. The height of the steps should not exceed 0. 5 m and the rise over run ratio should not less than 1/3, the stability of the weir cross-section design should be checked for flotation, over turning and sliding in accordance with Section 2. 3. 1. 1. 3 TRENCH INTAKES Trench intakes are intake structures located in the river bed that draw off flow through racks into a trench which conveys the flow into the project water conductor system. A characteristic of trench intakes is that they have minimum impact on river levels.Trench intakes are applied in situations where traditional headwork designs would be excessively expensive or result in objectionable rises in river levels. There are two quite different applications: on wide rivers and on mountainous streams, but the basic equations are the same for both types. The trench intake should be located in the main river channel and be of sufficient width to collect the design project flow including all flushing flows. If the length of the trench is less than the width of the river, cut off walls will be required into each bank to prevent the river from bypassing the structure.Trench weirs function best on weirs with slopes greater than 4%-5%, for flatter slopes diversion weirs should be considered. The spacing between racks is selected to prevent entry of bed load into the trench. The following terms are sometimes used in referring to trench intake designs. Trench weir, when the trench is installed in a raised embankment. †¢ Tyrolean or Caucasian intakes, when referring to trench intakes on †¢ mountainous streams. Features: AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  10 1. 3. 2 Design ParametersThe following design parameters are suggested for the dimensioning of trench weirs. †¢ Design Flows: The following design flows are recommended: Bedload flushing flo w (from collector box) = 0. 2 QT †¢ Desilter flushing flow = 0. 2 QT †¢ Turbine flow = 1. 0 QT †¢ Total design flow †¢ = 1. 4 QT Dimensional Layout AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  11 The following factors should be considered in determining the principal dimensions: length, breadth and depth of a trench weir: Minimum width (B)= 1. 25 m (to facilitate manual cleaning) Length should be compatible with river cross section. It is †¢ recommended that the trench be located across main river channel. Maximum width (B) ? 2. 50m. Trashrack bars longer than about 2. 50 m †¢ may require support as slenderness ratios become excessive. Invert of collector box should be kept a high as possible. †¢ †¢ Racks †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The clear spacing between bars should be selected to prevent entry of bed-load particles that are too large to be conveniently handled by the flushing system. Generally designs are based on excluding particles greater than medium gravel size from (2 cm to 4 cm).A clear opening of 3. 0 cm is recommended for design. A slope across the rack should be provided to avoid accumulation of bed load on the racks. Slopes normally used vary from 0 ° to 20 °. Rectangular bars are recommended. Bar structural dimension shall be designed in accordance with Section 2. 2. 1/5. 0 of this Standard. An appropriate contraction coefficient should be selected as explained in the following sub-section. Assume 30% blockage. Spacing between racks is designed to prevent the entry of bedload but must also be strong enough to support superimposed loads from bedload accumulation, men and equipment.This issue is discussed further in Subsection 2. 2. 3 / 2. 0. 1. 3. 3 Hydraulic Design of Trench Intake The first step in hydraulic design is to decide the width of the trench intake bearing in mind the flow capacity required and the bathymetry of the river bed. The next step in hydraulic design is to determine the minimum trench breadth (B) that will capture the required design flow. The design approach assumes complete capture of river flow, which implies, that river flow is equal to plant flow for the design condition. Hydraulic design is based on the following assumptions: Constant specific energy across racks. †¢ Effective head on screen is equal to base pressure (depth) †¢ Approach velocity is subcritical with a critical section at the entry to the structure as shown in figure 2. 2. 3/1. The set of equations proposed is based on the method given by Lauterjung et al (1989). †¢ First calculate y1: AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  12 2 y 1 = k. H0 3 – – – – – – – – – – – (1) Where: y1 = depth at upstream edge of rack Ho = the energy head of the approach ing flow k = an adjustment factor (m) m) (-) k is a function of inclination of the rack and can be determined from the following table: Values of k as a Function of Rack Slope (? ) Table: 2. 2. 1/1 ? = 0 ° 2 ° 4 ° 6 ° 8 ° 10 ° 12 ° k = 1. 000 0. 980 0. 961 0. 944 0. 927 0. 910 0. 894 ? = 14 ° 16 ° 18 ° 20 ° 22 ° 24 ° 26 ° k = 0. 879 0. 865 0. 851 0. 837 0. 852 0. 812 0. 800 Then calculate the breadth of the collector trench from the following equations (2) to (4) 1. 50 q – – – – – – – – – – – – – – (2) L= E1. E 2 C. cos? 3/2 . 2gy 1 Where: L = sloped length across collector trench (m) E1 = blockage factor E2 = Effective screen area = e/mC = contraction coefficient ? = slope of rack in degrees y1 = flow depth upstream from Equation 1. (m) q = unit flow entering intake (m3/s per m) e = clear distance between bars (cm or m) m = c/c spacing of bars (cm or m) Assu me E1 = 0. 3 (30%) blockage. â€Å"C† can be calculated from the following formula (as reported by Raudkivi) Rectangular bars: ?e? C = 0. 66 ? ? ?m? ?0. 16 ?m? .? ? ?h? 0. 13 Assume h = 0. 5 y1. This formula is valid for 3. 5> – – – – – – – – – – – – – (3) h e >0. 2 and 0. 15< < 0. 30 m m Finally, the required breadth (B) can be determined as below: B = L cos ? – – – – – – – – – – – – -(4) AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  13 1. 3. 4 Hydraulic Design of Collector Trench Normally a sufficient slope on the invert of the trench is provided to ensure efficient flushing of bed-load particles that would otherwise accumulate on the invert of the trench. A suitable scouring slope can be estimated from the following equation: Ss = 0. 66 d 9 / 7 6/7 qo Where: d = sediment size (m) qo = flow per unit width (Q/B) at outlet of trench (m3/s per m) Ss = design slope of trench invert.The minimum depth of the trench at the upstream and is normally between 1. 0m to 1. 5 m, based on water depth plus a freeboard of 0. 3 m. For final design the flow profile should be computed for the design slope and the trench bottom profile confirmed or adjusted, as required. A step-by-step procedure for calculating the flow profile that is applicable to this problem can be found in Example 124, page 342-345 of â€Å"Open-Channel Hydraulics† by Ven. T. Chow (1959). In most cases the profile will be sub critical with control from the downstream (exit) end.A suitable starting point would be to assume critical flow depth at the exit of the trench. 1. 3. 5 Collector Chamber The trench terminates in a collector box. The collection box has two outlets, an intake to the water conductor system and a flushing pipe. The flushing pipe must be design with the capacity to flush the bed-load sediment entering from the trench, while the project flow is withdrawn via the intake. The bottom of the collection box must be designed to provide adequate submergence for the flushing pipe and intake to suppress undesirable vortices.The flushing pipe should be lower than the intake and the flushing pipe sized to handle the discharge of bed load. If the flushing pipe invert is below the outlet of the trench, the Engineer should consider steepening the trench invert. If the trench outlet invert is below the flushing pipe invert, the latter should be lowered to the elevation of the trench outlet or below. The deck of the collector box should be located above the design flood level to provide safe access to operate gates. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  14 1. 3. Flushing Pipe The flushing pipe should be designed to provide a high enough velocity to en train bed-load captured by the weir. A velocity of at least 3. 0 m/s should be provided. If possible, the outlet end of the pipe should be located a minimum of 1. 0m above the river bed level to provide energy to keep the outlet area free from accumulation of bed load that could block the pipeline. 1. 3. 7 References on Trench weirs CBIP, (2001): Manual on Planning and Design of Small Hydroelectric Scheme Lauterjung et al (1989): Planning of Intake Structures Freidrich Vieweg and Sohn, Braunswchweig – GermanyIAHR (1993): Hydraulic Structures Design Manual: Sedimentation: Exclusion and Removal of Sediment from Diverted Water. By: Arved J. Raudkivi Publisher: Taylor & Francis, New York. Chow (1959): Open- Channel Hydraulics Publisher: McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. 1. 4 RESERVOIR, CANAL AND PENSTOCK INTAKES The designs of reservoir, canal and penstock intakes are all based on the same principles. However, there are significant variations depending on whether an intake is a t the forebay reservoir of a run-of-river plant or at storage reservoir with large draw down or is for a power tunnel, etc.Examples of a variety of layouts can be fond in IS 9761 Hydropower Intakes – Criteria for Hydraulic Design or Guidelines for Design of Intakes for Hydropower Plants (ASCE, 1995). The features common to all designs are shown in the following sketch: AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  15 The objectives of good design are: To prevent entry of floating debris. †¢ To avoid formation of air entraining vortices. †¢ To minimize hydraulic losses. †¢ 1. 4. 1 Control of floating debrisTo prevent the entry of debris a trashrack is placed at the entry to the intake. For small hydro plants the trashrack overall size is determined based on an approach velocity of 0. 75 m/s to 1. 0m/s to facilitate manual raking. Trashracks may be designed in panels that can be lowered into p lace in grooves provided in the intake walls or permanently attacked to anchors in the intake face. The trashracks should to sloped at 14 ° from the vertical (4V:1H) to facilitate raking. The spacing between bars is determined as a function of the spacing between turbine runner blades.IS 11388 Recommendations for Design of Trashracks for Intakes should be consulted for information about spacing between trashracks bars, structural design and vibration problems. Also, see Section 2. 2. 1/5 of this Standard. 1. 4. 2 Control of Vortices First of all the direction of approach velocity should be axial with respect the intake if at all possible. If flow approaches at a significant angle (greater than 45o) AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  16 from axial these will be significant risk of vortex problems.In such a situation an experienced hydraulic engineer should be consulted and for important projects hydra ulic model studies may be required. For normal approach flow the submergence can be determined from the following formulae: S = 0. 725VD0. 5 S D V = submergence to the roof of the gate section (m) = diameter of penstock and height of gate (m) = velocity at gate for design flow. (m/s) Where: A recent paper by Raghavan and Ramachandran discusses the merits of various formulae for determining submergence (S). 1. 4. 3 Minimization of Head lossesHead losses are minimized by providing a streamlined transition between the entry section and gate section. Minimum losses will be produced when a streamlined bellmouth intake is used. For a bellmouth intake the transition section is formed with quadrants of ellipses as shown in the following sketch. The bellmouth type intake is preferred when ever the additional costs are economically justified. For smaller, mainly mini hydropower stations, simpler designs are often optimal as the cost of construction of curved concrete surfaces may not be offse t by the value of reduction in head losses.Details on the geometry of both types are given †¢ Bellmouth Intake Geometry Geometries for typical run-of-river intakes are shown below: A gate width to height of 0. 785 (D): 1. 00 (H) with H = D is recommended. This permits some reduction in the cost of gates without a significant sacrifice in hydraulic efficiency. There is a second transition between the gate and penstock, rectangular to circular. For a gate having H = D and W= 0. 785D the flow velocity at the gate will be equal to the velocity in the penstock so no further flow acceleration is produced in this section. A length for this transition of 1. x D should be satisfactory. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  17 The head loss co-efficient for this arrangement in Ki =0. 10 Details for layout of bell mouth transitions connecting to a sloping penstock are given in IS9761. †¢ Simplified layout (Mini-Hydro): For smaller/mini hydro projects intake design can be simplified by forming the transition in plane surfaces as shown below: The head loss for this design (Ki) = 0. 19V2/2g. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  18 . 4. 4. AIR VENT An air vent should be placed downstream of the head gate to facilitate air exchange between atmosphere and the penstock for the following conditions: †¢ Penstock filling when air will be expelled from the penstock as water enters. †¢ Penstock draining when air will enter the penstock to occupy the space previously filled by water. The air vent (pipe) must have an adequate cross section area to effectively handle these exchanges of air. The following design rules are recommended: Air vent area should the greater of the following values Where: (m3/s) AV = 0. 0 Ap or QT AV = 25. 0 (m2) AV = cross-section area of air vent pipe AP = cross-section area of penst ock (m2) QP = turbine rated flow ( ? QT of more than one turbine on the penstock) The air vent should exhaust to a safe location unoccupied by power company employees on the general public. 1. 4. 5 PENSTOCK FILLING A penstock should be filled slowly to avoid excessive and dangerous â€Å"blowback†. The recommended practice is to control filling rate via the head gate. The AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  19 ead gate should not be opened more than 50 mm until the penstock is completely full. (This is sometime referred to as â€Å"cracking† the gate. ) 1. 4. 6 REFERENCES ON PENSTOCK INTAKES: †¢ 1. 4. 7 Indian Standard Cited. IS 9761: Hydropower Intakes – Criteria for Hydraulic Design OTHER REFERENCES †¢ Guidelines for Design of Intakes for Hydroelectric Plants ASCE, New York (1995) †¢ Validating the Design of an Intake Structure : By Narasimham Raghavan and M. K. Ram achandran, HRW – September 2007. †¢ Layman’s Guidebook European Small Hydro Association Brussels, Belgium (June 1998)Available on the internet. †¢ Vortices at Intakes By J. L. Gordon Water Power & Dam Construction April 1970 1. 5. TRASHRACKS AND SAFETY RACKS 1. 5. 1 Trashracks: Trashracks at penstock intakes for small hydro plants should be sloped at 4 V: 1H to facilitate manual raking and the approach velocity to the trashracks limited to 1. 0 m/s or less. Use of rectangular bars is normal practice for SHP’s. Support beams should be alignment with the flow direction to minimize hydraulic losses. Detailed trashrack design should be done in accordance with IS 11388. 1. 5. 2Safety Racks: Safety racks are required at tunnel and inverted siphon entries to prevent animals or people who may have fallen into the canal from being pulled into these submerged water ways. A clear spacing of 200 mm between bars is recommended. Other aspects of design should be in accordance with IS 11388. 1. 5. 3 References on Trashracks IS11388 – â€Å"Recommendations for Design of Trashracks for Intakes†. ASCE (1995) –â€Å"Guidelines for Design of Intakes for Hydroelectric Plants†. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  20 DRAWINGS:AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  21 AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  22 2. HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF WATERWAYS The waterways or water conduction system is the system of canals, aqueducts, tunnels, inverted siphons and pipelines connecting the head works with the forebay tank. This Section provides guidelines and norms for the hydraulic design of these structures. 2. 1 2. 1. 1 CANALS Canals for small hydro plants are typically constructed in masonry or reinforced co ncrete.Several typical cross section designs are shown below: AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  23 Lined canals in earth, if required, should be designed in accordance with Indian Standard: IS 10430. A further division of canal types is based on function: – Feeder canal to connect the head regulator (intake) to the desilter – Power canal to connect the desilter to the Forebay tank. 2. 1. 2 Feeder Canals 2. 1. 2. 1 Feeder canal hydraulic design shall be based on the following criteria: = Turbine flow (QT) + Desilter flushing flow (QF).Design flow (Qd) AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  24 2. 1. 2. 2 Scouring velocity: A sufficiently high velocity must be provided to prevent deposition of sediment within the canal. This (scouring) velocity can be determined from the following formulae: d 9/7 S C = 0. 66 6 / 7 n = 0. 015 q 1 1 ? VS = . R 2 / 3 . S C/ 2 n Where: Sc = Scouring slope d = Target sediment size (m) q = Flow per unit width (Q/W) (m/s/m) R = hydraulic radius (m) Vs = scouring velocity (m/s) n = Manning’s roughness coefficient 2. 1. 2. 3 Optimization:The optimum cross section dimensions, slope and velocity should be determined by economic analysis so as to minimize the total life time costs of capital, O&M and head losses (as capitalized value). The economic parameters for this analysis should be chosen in consultation with the appropriate regional, state or central power authorities these parameters include: – Discount rate (i) – Escalation rate(e) – Plant load factor – Service life in years (n) – Annual O+M for canal (% of capital cost) – Value of energy losses (Rs/kWh). Also see Section 1. 7 of this Standard. The selected design would be based on the highest of Vs or Voptimum. . 1. 2. 4 Freeboard: A freeboard allowance above the steady state design water level is required to contain water safely within the canal in event of power outages or floods. A minimum of 0. 5 m is recommended. 2. 1. 3 Power Canals: Power canal design shall be based on the following criteria a) Design flow = total turbine flow (QT) b) Power canal design should be based on optimization of dimensions, slope and velocity, as explained in the previous section. For mini-hydro plants Q < 2. 0 m3/s optimal geometric design dimensions for Type 1 (masonry construction) can be estimated by assuming a longitudinal slope of 0. 04 and a Manning’s n value of 0. 018. Masonry construction would normally be preferred for canals with widths (W) less than 2. 0 m (flow area = AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  25 2. 0 m2). For larger canals with flow areas greater than 2. 0m2, a Type 3, box culvert design would be preferred – based on economic analysis. c) Fr eeboard: A freeboard allowance above the steady state design level is required to contain water safety within the canal in event of power outages. The waterway in most SHP’s terminates in a Forebay tank.This tank is normally equipped with an escape weir to discharge surplus water or an escape weir is provided near to the forebay tank. For mini-hydro plants a minimum freeboard of 0. 50 m is recommended. The adequacy of the above minimum freeboard should be verified for the following conditions: †¢ Maximum flow in the power canal co-incident with sudden outage of the plant. †¢ Design flow plus margins for leakage losses (+0. 02 to +0. 05 QT) and above rated operation (+ 0. 1QT). †¢ Characteristics of head regulator flow control. The freeboard allowance may be reduced to 0. 5 m after taking these factors into consideration. The maximum water level occurring in the forebay tank can be determined from the weir equation governing flow in the escape weir. 2. 1. 4 Reje ction Surge Designs which do not incorporate downstream escape weirs would be subject to the occurrence of a rejection surge in the canal on sudden turbine shutdown, giving above static water levels at the downstream end, reducing to the static level at the upstream (entry) end of the water way. Methods for evaluating water level changes due to a rejection surge are explained in Section 2. 2. 2 / 7. 0 of this Standard. . 2 AQUEDUCTS Aqueducts are typically required where feeder or power canals pass over a gully or side stream valley. If the length of the aqueduct is relatively short the same channel dimensions as for the canal can be retained and there would be no change in hydraulic design. For longer aqueducts design would be based on economic analysis subject to the proviso that flow remains sub critical with NF ? 0. 8 in the flume sections. The following sketch shows the principal dimension of aqueduct entry and exit transitions and flume section. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design OfSmall Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  26 The changes in invert elevation across the entry and exit structures can be calculated by Bernouli’s equation as below: †¢ Entry transition – consider cross – section (1) and (2); V2 V2 Z 1 + D + 1 = Z 2 + d + 2 + hL 2g 2g and 2 †¢ b? V ? hL = 0. 10 ? 1 ? ?. 2 ? B ? 2g Z2 can be determined from the above equations, since all geometrical parameters are known. Flume – Sections (2) to (3) The slope of the flume section is determined from Manning’s equation 2 †¢ ? Vn ? ( S ) = ? 2 / 3 ? . A Manning’s n = 0. 018 is suggested for concrete channels. ?R ?Some designers increase this slope by 10% to provide a margin of safety on flow capacity of the flume. Exit transition – consider cross section (3) and (4): V2 V2 Z 3 + d + 3 = Z 4 + D + 4 + hL 2g 2g AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  27 and 2 b? V ? hL = 0. 20 ? 1 ? ?. 3 ? B ? 2g Z4 can be determined from the above equations, since all geometrical parameters are known. The same basic geometry can be adapted for transition between trapezoidal canals sections and rectangular flume section, using mean flow width (B) = A/D. . 3. INVERTED SYPHONS 2. 3. 1 Inverted syphons are used where it is more economical to route the waterway underneath an obstacle. The inverted syphon is made up of the following components: †¢ Entry structure †¢ Syphon barrels †¢ Exit structure †¢ Entry Structure: Hydraulic design of the entry structure is similar to the design of reservoir, canal and penstock intakes. Follow the guidelines given in Section 2. 2. 2/2. of this Standard. †¢ Syphon barrels: The syphon barrel dimensions are normally determined by optimization ? V? ? does not tudies, with the proviso that the Froude Number ? N F = ? gd ? ? ? exceed 0. 8. Invert elevations are determine d by accounting for head losses from entry to exit of the structure using Bernouli’s equation. For reinforced concrete channels a Manning’s â€Å"n† value of 0. 018 is recommended. The head loss coefficients for mitre bends can be determined from USACE HDC 228. 2. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  28 AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  29 Exit structure: The exit structure is designed as a diverging transition to minimize head losses; the design is similar to the outlet transition from flume to canal as discussed in Subsection 2. 2. 2/2 of this Standard. The following sketches show the layout of a typical inverted siphon. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  30 2. 3. 2 Reference on Aqueducts and Inverted Syphons â€Å"Hyd raulic Structures† By C. D. Smith University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon (SK) Canada 2. 4. LOW PRESSURE PIPELINESLow pressure pipelines may be employed as an alternative to pressurized box culverts, aqueducts or inverted syphons. Concrete, plastic and steel pipes are suitable depending on site conditions and economics. Steel pipe is often an attractive alternative in place of concrete aqueducts in the form of pipe bridges, since relatively large diameter pipe possesses significant inherent structural strength. Steel pipe (with stiffening rings, as necessary), concrete and plastic pipe also have significant resistance against external pressure, if buried, and offer alternatives to inverted syphons of reinforced concrete construction.Generally pressurized flow is preferred. The pipe profile should be chosen so that pressure is positive through out. If there is a high point in the line that could trap air on filling an air bleeder valve should be provided. Otherwise, hydraulic desi gn for low pressure pipelines is similar to the requirements for inverted syphons. The choice of type of design; low pressure pipeline land pipeline material), inverted syphon or aqueduct, depends on economic and constructability considerations, in the context of a given SHP. Manning’s â€Å"n† Values for selected Pipe Materials Material Welded Steel Polyethylene (HDPE) Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)Asbestos Cement Cast iron Ductile iron Precast concrete pipe Manning’s â€Å"n† 0. 012 0. 009 0. 009 0. 011 0. 014 0. 015 0. 013(2) Note: (1) From Table 5. 4 Layman’s Guide Book – ESHA (2) From Ven T. Chow – Open Channel Hydraulics AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  31 2. 5. TUNNELS 2. 5. 1 Tunnels often provide an appropriate solution for water conveyance in mountainous areas. Tunnels for SHP are generally of two types. †¢ Unlined tunnels †¢ Concrete li ned tunnels On SHP tunnels are usually used as part of the water ways system and not subject to high pressures. . 5. 2 Unlined tunnels: Unlined water tunnels can be used in areas of favourable geology where the following criteria are satisfied: a) Rock mass is adequately water tight. Rock surfaces are sound and not vulnerable to erosion (or erodible zones b) are suitably protected. The static water pressure does not exceed the magnitude of the minor field c) rock stress. Controlled perimeter blasting is recommended in order to minimize over break and produce sound rock surfaces. Additionally, this construction approach tends to produce relatively uniform surfaces and minimizes the hydraulic roughness of the completed tunnel surfaces.Design velocities of 1. 5 to 2. 0 m/s on the mean AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  32 cross section area give optimal cross section design. It is normal practice to provi de a 100mm thick reinforced concrete pavement over leveled and compacted tunnel muck in the invent of the tunnel. IS 4880: Part 3 provides additional guidance on the hydraulic design of tunnels and on the selection of appropriate Manning’s â€Å"n† values. 2. 5. 3 Lined Tunnels Where geological are unfavourable it is often necessary to provide concrete linings for support of rock surfaces.IS4880: Parts 1-7 give comprehensive guidelines on the design of lined tunnels. 2. 5. 4 High Pressure Tunnels Design of high pressure tunnels is not covered in this standard. For high pressure design, if required, the designer should consult an experienced geotechnical engineer or engineering geologist. For the purpose of this standard, high pressure design is defined as tunnels subject to water pressures in excess of 10m relative to the crown of the tunnels. 2. 5. 5 Reference on Tunnels IS Standards: IS 4880 â€Å"Code of Practice for the Design of Tunnels Conveying Water†. Ot her References: Norwegian Hydropower Tunnelling† (Third volume of collected papers) Norwegian Tunneling Society Trondheim, Norway. www. tunnel. no Notably: Development of Unlined Pressure Shafts and Tunnels in Norway, by Einar Broch. 2. 6. CULVERTS AND CROSS-DRAINAGE WORKS Small hydro projects constructed in hilly areas usually include a lengthy power canal routed along a hillside contour. Lateral inflows from streams and gullies intercepted by SHP canals often transport large sediments loads which must be prevented from entering the canal. The first line of defense is the canal upstream ditch which intercepts local lateral runoff.The flow in these chains must be periodically discharged or the drain capacity will be exceeded. Flow from these drains is usually evacuated via culverts passing underneath the canal. These culverts would normally be located where gullies or streams cross the canal alignment. The capacity of canal ditches should be decided taking into consideration t he average distance between culverts. In the rare cases when distance between culverts is excessive, consideration should be given to diverting AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  33 itch flows across the canal in flumes or half round pipes to discharge over the downhill side of the canal at suitable locations. Culverts are usually required where the canal route crosses gullies or streams. Culverts at these points provide for flow separation between lateral inflows and canal inflows and often present the most economical solution for crossing small but steep valley locations. It is recommended that culverts design be based on the following hydrological criteria. †¢ For mini hydro projects, 1 in 10 year flood (Q10) †¢ For small hydro projects, 1 in 25 year flood (Q25)Where it is practical to extract the necessary basin parameters, the procedures given in Section 1. 4 should be applied. Otherwise design flows should be estimated from field measurements of cross section area and longitudinal slope at representative cross section of the gully or side stream. A survivable design approach is further recommended with canal walls strengthened to allow local over topping without damage to the canal integrity when floods exceed the design flood values. Detailed hydraulic design should be based on information from reliable texts or design guidelines – such as: â€Å"Design of Small Bridges and Culverts† Goverdhanlal †¢ †¢ 2. 7 2. 7. 1 â€Å"Engineering and Design – Drainage and Erosion Control†. Engineering Manual EM 1110-3-136 U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1984) www. usace. army. mil/publications/eng-manuals Manufacturer’s guides, notably: – American Concrete Pipe Association www. concrete-pipe. org – Corrugated Steel Pipe Institute www. cspi. ca Power Canal Surges Power canals that are not provided with escape weirs near their downstream end will be subject to canal surges on rapid load rejections or load additions.The rejection surge will typically cause the downstream water level to rise above static level and may control the design of canal freeboard. For load additions there is a risk that the level will fall to critical at the downstream end and restrict the rate at which load can be taken on by the unit. The following formulae taken from IS 7916: 1992 can be used to estimate the magnitude of canal surges. AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  34 Maximum surge height in a power channel due to load rejection may be calculated from the empirical formulae given below:For abrupt closure hmax = K 2 + 2 Kh For gradual closure within the period required for the first wave to travel twice the length of the channel: K hmax = + V . h / g 2 Where: hmax = maximum surge wave height, K = V2/2g = velocity head, V = mean velocity of flow, and area of cross sec tion h = effective depth = top width †¢ Maximum water level resulting from a rejection surge at the downstream of a canal: Maximum W. L. = Yo + hmax †¢ Minimum water level resulting from by a start up surge at the downstream end of a canal: Minimum W. L. = YS – hmax Where: Yo YS = steady state downstream water level static downstream water level. The maximum water level profile can be approximated by a straight line joining the maximum downstream water level to the reservoir level. 2. 7. 2 Canal Surges on Complex Waterways: For waterway systems comprising several different water conductor types, the above equations are not applicable. In such cases a more detailed type of analysis will be required. The U. S. National Weather Service FLDWAV computer program can be used to solved for the transient flow conditions in such cases (Helwig, 2002). 2. 7. 3 References IS Standards cited:IS 7916: 1992 â€Å"Open Channel – Code of Practiceà ¢â‚¬ . Other References â€Å"Application of FLDWAV(Floodwave) Computer Model to Solve for Power Canal Rejection Wave for Simple and Complex Cases†. P. C. Helwig Canadian Society for Civil Engineering Proceedings, Annual Conference Montreal, Canada (2002). AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  35 3. HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF DESILTERS 3. 1 BACKGROUND Sediment transported in the flow, especially particles of hard materials such as quartz, can be harmful to turbine components.The severity of damage to equipment is a function of several variables, notably: sediment size, sediment hardness, particle shape, sediment concentration and plant head. The control of turbine wear problems due to silt erosion requires a comprehensive design approach in which sediment properties, turbine mechanical and hydraulic design, material selection and features to facilitate equipment maintenance are all considered (Naidu, 200 4). Accordingly the design parameters for desilter design should be made in consultation with the mechanical designers and turbine manufacturer.Where the risk of damage is judged to be high a settling basin (or desilter) should be constructed in the plant waterway to remove particles, greater than a selected target size. 3. 1. 1 Need The first design decision is to determine whether the sediment load in the river of interest is sufficiently high to merit construction of a desilter. There is little guidance available on this topic; however, the following limits are suggested by Naidu (2004): Table 2. 2. 3/1. 0 Concentration Suggested Maximum Allowable Sediment versus Plant Head. Parameter Head Maximum allowable sediment concentrationLow and Medium Head Turbines ? 150 m High Head Turbines > 150 m 200 ppm 150 ppm 3. 1. 2 Removal Size There are also considerable divergences of opinion on the selection of design size for sediment removal. Nozaki (1985) suggests a size range of between 0. 3 mm to 0. 6 mm for plant heads ranging from 100 m to 300 m. Indian practice is to design for a particles size of 0. 20 m regardless of head. Some authors suggest that removal of particles smaller than 0. 20 mm is not practical. The adoption of 0. 20 mm is the design (target) sediment size is recommended for Indian SHP designs.AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  36 3. 1. 3 Types of Desilters There are two basic types of desilters: Continuous flushing type Intermittent flushing type Guidelines for design of both types are given in this section. 3. 2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3. 2. 1 Data Requirements (Small Hydro Plants) It is recommended that a program of suspended sediment sampling be initiated near the intake site from an early stage during site investigations to ensure that sufficient data is available for design.The sampling program should extend through the entire rainy season and should comprise at least two readings daily. On glacier fed rivers where diurnal flow variations may exist, the schedule of sampling should be adjusted to take this phenomenon into account and the scheduled sampling times be adjusted to coincide with the hour of peak daily flow with another sample taken about twelve hours later. While it is often assumed that sediment load is directly related to flow, this is only true on the average, in a statistical sense.In fact it is quite likely, that the peak sediment event of a year may be associated with a unique upstream event such as a major landslide into the river. Such events often account for a disproportionately large proportion of the annual sediment flow. Therefore, it would also be desirable to design the sediment measurement program to provide more detailed information about such events, basically to increase the sampling frequency to one sample per 1 or 2 hours at these times. A five year long sediment collecting program would be ideal. Less than o ne monsoon season of data is considered unsatisfactory.Some authors suggest that the vertical variation of sediment concentration and variations horizontally across the river be measured. However, on fast flowing rivers inherent turbulence should ensure uniform mixing and sampling at one representative point should be sufficient. The data collected in a sediment sampling program should include: †¢ Mean daily concentration of suspended sediment (average of two readings twelve hours apart) †¢ Water temperature †¢ Flow (from a related flow gauging program) The following additional information can then be derived from collected samples.AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  37 †¢ †¢ †¢ A sediment rating curve (sediment concentration versus flow – where possible) Particle size gradation curve on combined sample Specific gravity of particles. It is also recommended that a pet rographic analysis be carried out to identify the component minerals of the sediment mix. It is likewise recommended that experiments be made on selected ranges of particles sizes to determine settling velocities. A further discussion on the subject of sediment sampling is given in Avery (1989)The characteristics of the sediment on a given river as obtained from a data collection program will assist in selection of appropriate design criteria. 3. 2. 2 Data Requirements (Mini Hydro Plants) On mini hydro projects where resources and time may not be available to undertake a comprehensive sampling program, selection of design parameters will depend to a great extent on engineering judgment, supplemented by observations on site and local information. The following regional formula by Garde and Kothyari (1985) can be used to support engineering decision making. 0. 19 ?P ? 0 Vs = 530. 0 P0. 6. Fe1. . S0. 25 Dd . 10 .? max ? ?P? Where Vs = mean sediment load in (tonnes/km2/year) s = average slope (m/m) Dd = drainage density, as total length of streams divided by catchment area (km/km2) P = mean annual precipitation (cm) Pmax = average precipitation for wettest month (cm) Fe = ground cover factor, as below: 1 Fe = [0. 80 AA + 0. 60 AG + 0. 30 AF + 0. 10 AW ] ? Ai = arable land area AA = grass land area (all in km2) AG AF = forested area AW = waste land area (bare rock) 3. 2. 3 Design Criteria The principle design criteria are: 1. The target size for removal (d): d = 0. 20 mm is recommended 2.Flushing flow: QF = 0. 2 QP is recommended 3. Total (design) flow: QT = QP + QF = 1. 2 QP. Where QP is plant flow capacity in (m3/s). AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/ Civil Works – Guidelines For Hydraulic Design Of Small Hydro Plants /May 2011  Ã‚  38 3. 2. 4 Siting The following factors control site selection 1. A site along the water way of appropriate size and relatively level with respect to cross section topography 2. A site high enough above river level to provide adequate head for flushing. For preliminary layout a reference river level corresponding to the mean annual flood and minimum flushing head of 1. 0 m is recommended. In principle a desilting tank can be located anywhere along the water conductor system, upstream of the penstock intake. Sometimes it is convenient to locate the desilting basin at the downstream end of the waterway system where the desilter can also provide the functions of a forebay tank. However, a location as close to the head works is normally preferred, site topography permitting. 3. 3 Hydraulic Design A desilter is made up of the following elements: †¢ Inlet section Settling tank †¢ Outlet section †¢ †¢ Flushing system 3. 3. 1